Because healing is phase oriented, certain systems must in place at the right time to effect the healing cascade. This begins with inflammation, which is immune system mediated. A hematoma forms, which is filled with platelets, cytokines and growth factors. There are important meditators at work- PDGF (platelet derived growth factor), VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), BMPs (bone morphologic proteins), interleukins, TGFa (transforming growth factor), and more. These signaling molecules recruit osteo-progenitor cells and ignite angiogenesis. The system must maintain balance between normal inflammatory response and excessive or prolonged inflammation which can impair the process. 

Angiogenesis means "new blood vessel formation," a process critical to repair. The biology of bone healing thus begins with restoration of blood flow. 

There are two main types of bone healing - primary and secondary. Primary healing is direct laying down of matrix between two fracture ends. This occurs when there is adequate blood flow, close approximation of bone ends, stability at the fracture site, and low tissue strain. Secondary bone healing occurs when there is relative stability, not absolute rigidity. This involves a cartilage intermediary, a tissue type visible in the healing process. 

This concept of strain is critical to understanding how bone behaves. Strain is basically the change in gap length divided by the original gap length. Different tissue types tolerate different amounts of strain. Granulation tissue tolerates high strain, bone tolerates very low strain. This means that the tissue type that will form at a fracture site is heavily dependent on the mechanical environment. Bone healing does not like extremes. Too much motion leads to delayed healing and persistent fibrous tissue. Too little will suppress callous formation and stress shield the bone leading to poor biologic recruitment. 

Healing likes the environment to be stable enough but not necessarily absolutely rigid. This is the art in surgical practice - determining how and when bone needs stability, how much stability, and when to progress to load and stress again. 

Of course, mechanics alone are not a sure bet that the bone will heal. Biologic constitution also is a factor. Low vitamin D, low calcium levels, high sugar levels, presence of carbon monoxide, and more can lead to poor healing of bone tissue.  

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

A bunion is a complex condition resulting from either structural anomaly or biomechanical instability, and often both. Careful evaluation of the condition is required; no two bunion deformities are identical. Mistakes are made when patient expectations are unrealistic, physician capabilities are limited, there is no sound surgical plan to address every component of the deformity, or the procedure is poorly executed. The failure often occurs before the procedure is carried out.

Proper planning includes complete evaluation for causation. Removing the bump may provide short term relief, but not addressing all the causative factors will result in long term failure. That is why clinical and radiographic parameters are so critical. Along with an arsenal of procedure selection in the surgeon's pocket to choose from. 

Distal osteotomy procedures are the least technically demanding and have the lowest complication rates. The good news, most patients will fall into this category. More proximal procedures are required for extremes of the deformity - rigidity, age of patient and deformity, and profound dynamic forces acting across the first ray. For the segment of patients that fall into this category, expectations should be set accordingly - the more complex the procedure, the more can go wrong. Nonunions, neuritis, hardware complications, and load transfer related issues all have a higher incidence with these procedures. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

It is crucial to understand that the foot and ankle are merely a system of levers and pulleys. Understanding the anatomic arrangement of the tendons around an axis describes the relative contribution of a muscle (by way of tendons) to the system. The larger the tendon, the more force it can exert. And the farther from the joint axis, the greater the lever arm, also resulting in more force. And when a tendon crosses over a joint axis, we can determine which direction the force will occur. 

Tendons on the lateral side of the ankle will pull the foot into eversion, while tendons on the medial side will invert. Posterior tendons plantar flex, while anterior tendons dorsiflex. However the arrangement becomes more complex when we see tendons crossing multiple axes, and becoming maximally loaded and thus effective at specific points during the gait cycle. Pathology occurs when joint axes shift from ideal, or motion is somehow limited either by physical restriction (tight tendons or boney impingement) or by anatomic malalignment.

Such is the example with a short or elevated first ray, or a first ray with an axis moving away from the traverse plane. The result of inefficiency in the peroneal complex to sufficiently load the medial column will result in prolonged pronation, the downstream effects being hyper mobility, poor shock absorption, distal deformity such as bunions and hammertoes, and load transfer issues like metatarsalgia, stress fractures, and neuromas. 

Thus you can appreciate how biomechanics is the foundation of many of the pathologies we see in foot and ankle medicine. Correcting these deficiencies is essential to surgical practice. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

If you remember back to our discussion on pronation and supination - the foot first must pronate when loading then convert into a supinated, rigid lever for propulsion. This occurs when the body weight moves over the center of the foot, tightening posterior structures and placing them into position for maximal effect. When this system works properly, the Achilles tendon raises the hind foot and increases pressure on the forefoot. At the same time, supination is occurring. The peroneus longus tendon begins firing, causing forefoot load to transfer from the lateral forefoot to the first ray, our most important propulsive lever in the forefoot. If an imbalance exists in this chain - for example excessively tight Achilles, poorly functional peroneal complex, or first ray insufficiency due to elevation, shortening or stiffness, then more load occurs for longer in the lesser metatarsals. This sets up a variety of pathological processes, any of which may occur or more than one may happen at the same time. 

Treatment should focus on mechanics first - how did the pathology occur? Functional problems are treated with functional support such as orthotics. Structure comes second. And when a structural concern exists often surgical intervention can be helpful. However surgery just to relieve pain will often fail if it does not address mechanical causes leading to the pain. 

Key takeaways for practitioners:

• Metatarsalgia is a symptom, not a diagnosis
• The first ray is critical—ignore it and you’ll fail
• Callus tells you everything about pressure distribution
• Equinus is one of the most underappreciated contributors
• Orthotics work—when done correctly
• Surgery should correct mechanics, not just relieve pain

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Diagnostic testing such as MRI, CT, ultrasound and EMG/NCV studies are not consistently diagnostic, leading to many alternate theories for pain in this region. Many practitioners will often overlook double crush situations where the peripheral nerves are already hypersensitive due to more proximal level compression. Systemic disorders such as diabetes and thyroid disease may also make peripheral nerves more susceptible to compression injuries. 

Careful history and physical exam, and occasionally a diagnostic block are used to confirm the diagnosis and rule out others. 

Treatments are also difficult because there is no consistency in response to any one method. Occasionally surgery is required for pain relief, although expectations for surgical outcome must be guarded. In advanced stages the post-operative prognosis worsens, and patients often will gain some but not complete relief. This is true even if space occupying lesions are the causative factor and can be removed.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Total Prevalence: Approximately 40.1 million people (diagnosed or undiagnosed) have diabetes, about 12% of the US population.

• Diagnosed vs. Undiagnosed: Of the 40.1 million, roughly 29.1 million are diagnosed, while 11 million are undiagnosed.
• Prediabetes: An estimated 115.2 million American adults aged 18 and older have prediabetes.
• New Cases: Every year an estimated 1.5 million Americans are diagnosed with diabetes.

Economic and Health impact: 

Cost: The total estimated cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2022 was over $412.9 billion.

• Mortality: Diabetes is a leading cause of death in the US.
• Complications: Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to heart disease, kidney damage, vision loss, and leg or foot amputations.

Diabetes affects all of the major organ systems in the lower extremity. The nervous system, circulatory system, musculoskeletal system, and even the skin. What we see in the foot is a window into what is happening to the body systemically. A diabetic foot wound is not a simple or isolated condition - it reflects advanced disease state, and can be a critical entry point, a big red flag, for more intensive treatment of the underlying condition. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Because it is such an influential force across the entire foot, the Achilles tendon is usually examined along with specific pathologies that may be the 'presenting complaint.' Patients are often unaware of the tightness in the heel cord. This is where careful and deliberate clinical evaluation is essential. Treatment of a specific pathology while ignoring the primary causative condition will lead to reoccurrence. 

Calf stretching is part of comprehensive rehabilitation for many foot and ankle conditions. Stretching is best when performed with frequency, repetition and force. Gravity is one way to achieve stretch, but tensioned bands, belts, even a pillowcase can be more effective at helping stretch this strong structure. The benefits of stretching cannot be overemphasized. It is especially important as we age, become less active or mobile.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Systemic conditions such as diabetes and autoimmune disorders can lead to nerve dysfunction, or peripheral neuropathy. Symptoms of neuropathy may include burning, stinging, compressive pressure, pins and needles, or even combinations of symptoms. Often the presentation will be insidious, developing slowly over time. However the symptoms can become profound and persistent, affecting quality of life. Treatment begins with identifying the underlying cause and if possible treating that condition, with nerve symptoms resolving when the underlying disorder is reversed. In some cases, such as with diabetic neuropathy, there is no reversal as the nerve damage becomes permanent. 

Mechanical compression is another common cause of nerve pain in the foot. Morton's neuroma and tarsal tunnel syndrome are two examples of this. Electrical shock, tingling, and abnormal sensations hallmark these conditions. Generally, pressure relief has beneficial effects. Occasionally the pressure needs to be relieved with surgical means. This involves decompressive surgery. 

In season 2, we will dive deeper into surgical management of nerve conditions and many others. This episode will touch on symptoms and workup. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

A hammertoe occurs when one of the lesser toes—most commonly the second, third, or fourth toe—becomes bent at the middle joint, creating a characteristic hammer-like appearance. Early in the condition the toe may remain flexible, but over time the deformity can become rigid and painful.

We discuss the different types of digital deformities, including:

• Hammertoe, where the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint bends upward
• Mallet toe, which involves bending at the distal joint near the tip of the toe
• Claw toe, where multiple joints bend and the toe curls more dramatically

The episode explains how these deformities develop, focusing on the role of muscle imbalance between the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the foot, as well as contributing biomechanical factors such as long second toes, joint instability, structural foot types, and restrictive footwear.

Common symptoms include:

• Pain or irritation in shoes
• Corns and calluses from pressure points
• Difficulty finding comfortable footwear
• Progressive deformity of the toe

We also review treatment options, beginning with conservative approaches such as footwear modifications, padding, orthotics, and activity changes. These strategies aim to relieve pressure and slow progression of the deformity.

When symptoms persist or the deformity becomes rigid, surgical correction may be considered. Surgical procedures typically focus on realigning the toe, releasing tight tendons, or stabilizing the joint to restore function and relieve pain.

Finally, we discuss recovery and patient expectations following hammertoe surgery. Most patients are able to walk immediately in a protective surgical shoe, with gradual return to normal footwear over several weeks. Swelling can persist for a few months, but long-term outcomes are generally very favorable when the deformity is appropriately corrected.

This episode provides a clear overview of hammertoes—from how they develop to the treatments available—helping listeners better understand a condition that affects a large portion of the population.

Key Takeaways

• Hammertoes are a common deformity affecting the lesser toes.
• They often develop due to muscle imbalance and biomechanical factors.
• Early treatment focuses on pressure relief and supportive footwear.
• Surgery may be recommended when deformities become rigid or painful.
• Recovery typically allows early walking with gradual return to activity.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Key fossil discoveries—including Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and the famous 3.6-million-year-old Laetoli footprints—provide critical evidence of how early humans began walking upright. Later species such as Homo erectus show the emergence of many modern features of the human foot, including shorter toes, a larger heel bone, and the development of the longitudinal arch.

The episode also explores the biomechanics that make the human foot so efficient, including the windlass mechanism, elastic energy storage within the arch and plantar fascia, and the role of the big toe in propulsion. Together, these adaptations transformed the foot into a structure capable of supporting long-distance walking and endurance running.

Finally, the discussion connects evolutionary design to modern foot pathology, highlighting how conditions such as plantar fasciitis, bunions, and arch dysfunction may represent trade-offs of our specialized bipedal anatomy.

I named the podcast 'Bipedal' since the story of structure origin is fundamental to understanding what can structurally go wrong. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease worldwide, affecting hundreds of millions of people. In the foot alone, imaging studies suggest that roughly one in five adults over 50 show signs of arthritis, although not all cases produce symptoms. Ankle arthritis affects approximately 1% of the population, and unlike hip or knee arthritis, the majority of ankle arthritis cases are post-traumatic, meaning they develop after an injury such as an ankle fracture or severe sprain.

Arthritis typically begins with breakdown of the protective cartilage inside the joint, which normally allows smooth, pain-free movement. As cartilage deteriorates, the joint space narrows and the bones begin to experience increased mechanical stress. Over time this can lead to bone spurs, stiffness, loss of motion, and chronic pain.

There are different causes of arthritis, including:

• Primary osteoarthritis, related to age and long-term wear
• Post-traumatic arthritis, often following fractures or ligament injuries
• Inflammatory arthritis, such as rheumatoid arthritis or psoriatic arthritis
• Biomechanical causes, including deformities or abnormal foot structure

Common symptoms of foot and ankle arthritis include:

• Pain during walking or standing
• Stiffness in the affected joint
• Swelling and inflammation
• Loss of joint motion
• Progressive deformity in advanced cases

Treatment generally begins with conservative management aimed at reducing pain and improving function. These strategies may include activity modification, supportive footwear, custom orthotics, bracing, anti-inflammatory medications, and occasionally injections to reduce inflammation. When symptoms become severe or conservative treatments fail, surgical options may be considered. These procedures can include joint debridement, realignment procedures, joint fusion, or in certain cases joint replacement, particularly for the ankle.

The episode emphasizes that treatment decisions are individualized and depend on the severity of arthritis, the joints involved, and the patient’s activity level and goals.

Key Takeaways

• The foot contains 33 joints, making arthritis a common source of foot pain.
• Approximately 20% of adults over 50 show signs of foot arthritis on imaging.
• Around 70–80% of ankle arthritis develops after trauma, such as fractures or severe sprains.
• Symptoms typically include pain, stiffness, swelling, and decreased mobility.
• Conservative treatments often provide relief, but surgical options exist for advanced cases.

This episode provides listeners with a clear overview of how arthritis develops in the foot and ankle and the wide range of treatment options available to maintain mobility and quality of life.

For more discussions about foot and ankle health, stay tuned to BIPEDAL.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Understanding the mechanism of injury is crucial in fracture evaluation and management. Because fractures follow patterns, skilled clinical evaluation can determine whether straightforward conservative management is appropriate, or more intensive surgical repair is required. Factors such as patient age, activity level, biologic capacity for healing, and even adequate blood flow all become part of a clinical picture that dictates methods of treatment. 

I am taking a broad look at this type of injury in Season 1 to lay the foundation for future discussions. Next season we will begin to explore more in depth surgical topics including specific fracture scenarios that we treat. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Patients will report initially with occasional pain with bending, or when performing certain activities such as jumping or stooping. As the condition progresses, limitation of motion becomes more pronounced, and bone spurs will become evident. In later stages, even walking may be painful.

Because arthritis is progressive degeneration, there is no easy "fix." We manage symptoms using shoe modifications and orthotic therapy, occasionally supplemented by medications and physical therapy. When these modalities fail, surgery may be indicated. The good news is that this is a slow process, often taking years for symptoms to rise to this level of care. 

Surgery also has options. In early stages, joint salvage is preferred over joint destruction. This may include a simple clean up of the spurs and removal of loose cartilage. As the cartilage wear patterns continue and joint space narrows, decompression through osteotomy (cutting of the bone) may extend the life of the natural joint. In later stages of degeneration the joint may no longer be salvageable. At this stage we consider either replacement or fusion depending on activity level, radiographic parameters, and patient preference. 

Joint fusion remains the mainstay for end stage arthritis. So there is always a definitive procedure for alleviating pain in this joint, but we work through many methods before choosing this option. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Clinically, we often see the great toe joint involved. This is probably due to several factors, including that underlying arthritis is often present before a gout episode occurs. Additionally this is a relatively large joint in a cool area of the body. 

Diet may play a role. Specifically, foods high in purines will contribute to hyperuricemia. Shellfish, dark flesh fish such as salmon and tuna, red meat and derivative products such as gravy, even beans and peas may elevate systemic uric acid levels. Additionally, dehydration may compound the elevated uric acid levels, such as with consumption of alcohol or when taking diuretic medication. 

With blood tests we can determine the levels of uric acid and consider either diet modification for transient or slightly elevated uric acid or long term medication for very high levels. These medications will lower the uric acid and thus indirectly reduce or eliminate gout attacks. 

Gout as an inflammatory condition is manageable, but clinical evaluation is essential. Each attack is not without consequence and multiple attacks over time can lead to severe debilitation, sometimes requiring surgical management. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

On the outside of the ankle there is a ligament complex called the lateral collateral ligaments. These are the most commonly injured in a typical ankle sprain. On the inside of the ankle lies the deltoid ligament, and triangular shaped ligament complex that can secondarily become injured during a lateral sprain or primarily injured, such as when stepping in a hole and the foot is turned outwards. And in between the leg bones, the tibia and fibula, is a strong ligament complex called the syndesmosis that can also become torn in high ankle sprain patterns. 

When I examine patients, I am taking inventory of the integrity of all of these structures, as well as the bones that they connect to. I pay special attention to the ability of the ligament to restrain motion. This can clue us in to whether a ligament has been simply stretched, partially, or fully torn. 

An unstable ankle as a result of torn ligaments can be especially problematic long term. This is due to the aberrant motion allowed when ligaments are stretched or unstable. The result is premature wear of the cartilage lining the joint which can lead to early arthritis. Thus the reason we take even 'simple' sprains very seriously both in initial approach and with rehabilitation. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

The posterior tibial tendon rarely weakens or fails all at once. It is a progressive degeneration, like we saw with the Achilles tendon in Episode 6. Repetitive stress on a weakened tendon creates a cycle that ultimately results in tendon tearing and failure, leading to collapse of the arch. At first this is a tendon only problem. Later this becomes a multi-joint failure with degeneration and adaptive changes in other structures of the foot and ankle. 

Early intervention may prevent progression to the arthritic process of joint degeneration. Orthotics, physical therapy, activity and shoe gear modification are used early on. Later stages may require more aggressive treatment including surgery. Occasionally, we use surgery as a tool earlier in the process before the late stage events occur. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

When tension exceeds the elasticity of the tendon small tears may develop. Small tears can scar in, but this tissue is weaker than the original tendon fibers. consequently a cycle can develop of micro tearing and repairing. Eventually, enough of the tendon is compromised and a nodule or lump may appear in the tendon. This is an indication that things have degenerated quite a bit.

Stretching and warming up the tendon before activity is the mainstay of prevention and treatment of early Achilles tendonitis. This is performed with bands, towels, or just gravity, to eccentrically load the tendon and get it ready for engagement. Unfortunately, tendonopathy (as it is more appropriately termed) is not a quick fix; it involves weeks and sometimes months to work through before returning to normal activity. 

When stretching and resting do not alleviate the pain and tightness of the Achilles tendon we may resort to surgical methods. This can vary from high energy sound waves directed at the tendon, radiofrequency ablation of the scarred tissue, up to open debridement, tendon lengthening and even tendon transfers. 

It is helpful to know that 80% or more patients will not escalate to this level. The vast majority will respond well to appropriate treatment and addressing underlying biomechanical issues. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Orthotics are also a way to compensate for arthritic joints, failing or weakened tendons, inflamed nerves, arch fatigue, or excessive forefoot stress. Depending on the materials used and the modifications of the device, many foot conditions can be adequately treated using these powerful tools. 

If you are considering purchasing shoe inserts because of a painful foot condition wait! Listen to the episode before you spend considerable money on devices that may not work! In the long run, you may be better off evaluated by a professional to determine if these will work for you at all, and which type of device you require. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Progressive conditions are dynamic. In this case, the formation of a bunion is just the start of a process of deviation of bones from their original position into a buckled one. This means when a patient notices the bump near their great toe, almost always that bump does not stay the same size forever. It will grow, the great toe will shift position over time, and symptoms may eventually emerge as a painful sore great toe that becomes bothersome even without shoes on. 

Understanding what a bunion is, why it progresses, and what the symptoms are can be revealing. Who will get a bunion? Why do they get worse with time? What you can do to slow that progression? We will get into all of that and more. 

There are varied treatments for bunions, from conservative to surgical. In this episode we will stick with a broad overview of the deformity and touch on conservative methods of management. I will dive deeper into surgical treatments in subsequent podcast episodes for patients or clinicians who want to understand more about corrective measures. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Pronation is critical for proper shock absorption and adaptation to uneven terrain. Supination is the process of reversing the foot from a mobile adapter to a rigid lever to allow efficient propulsion. When either motion is excessive, prolonged, or unrestricted, specific pathological conditions may follow. Often a condition seemingly unrelated to foot motion can be traced back to an excess of either motion. For example, stress fractures occur more commonly in a supinated foot. 

These motions are dynamic, and required for efficient gait. When evaluating a foot type, the static position is one part of the equation. The foot as it functions dynamically is the other. A pronated foot may supinate excessively, slightly, or not at all. Likewise for the supinated foot. It is this complex series of movements that we study when evaluating foot pathology. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

The majority of patients I see have tried resting, over the counter pain medications, changing their shoes and possibly some stretching. I have to assume a great deal of patients have success with this. However many do not, causing them to come limping into the office seeking professional help. 

We begin with evaluating precipitating events, avoiding these activities and modifying shoe gear appropriately. NSAIDs, a rigorous stretching routine, and occasionally corticosteroid injections are used initially. Shoe inserts that are appropriate for a patients foot type and activity are also instituted. The majority of patients will obtain relief with these techniques. For stubborn cases a physical therapist is brought on to aid in pain reduction and reversal of the factors that led to fasciitis developing. In more refractory cases surgery may be required.

Surgical methods vary among practitioners but most have very high success rates. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Dr. Weinstein has been practicing foot and ankle surgery for over 20 years. In this time new formats for public education have emerged.  No single source exists where a comprehensive discussion of common pathologies and treatment algorithms are explained in short format audio or video. The hope is to change that in this series. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.